By Ellie Nielsen & Morgan Ebel

Before coming to Brazil, the class completed research projects in different areas. Ours happened to be violence against minorities and the one we decided to focus on was violence against women. Women make up over half of Brazil’s population. Yet they face extreme violence day in and day out. In the nation it is estimated that one woman was affected by violence every four minutes in 2017 and an average of 13 women were murdered each day (Araujo 2021, 123). That was just in 2017. It is a trend in Brazil that violence altogether is very high, especially, through and since the pandemic. More specifically violence against women is continuing to rise as well. In a study published in 2016, researchers broke up their study into two periods 2007-2009 and 2011-2013. 58 municipalities in Brazil partook in the research. They found that between the two periods of time there was an overall 10 percent increase of female deaths by aggression (Ceccon 2016, 2965). Each year since, there has been an expected increase of femicide. Femicide is a concept that was first described by Diana Russel as being a murder of a woman due to the victim being a woman. Russel further accounted femicide to being an act of sexual terrorism on top of it working as a mechanism for keeping women under control (Ceccon 2016, 2964). To say the least, knowing these statistics, traveling to this new country, and Pedro getting robbed the first night was quite a terrifying experience for the females on this trip. The first topic to understand is how gender norms and masculinity play a role in the continual increase of violence against women. Another large facet that is laid out in this research is the relationship between one’s race and gender. Lastly, we will touch on the lecture given to us by Major Denice Santiago from the Ronda Maria da Penha organization.

Gender norms and toxic masculinity are leading causes of increased violence against women. A study was conducted to examine whether women delegated police stations in Salvador, Bahia created a more just system for women. The work looked at gender bias within the police force and found that its environment was more welcoming to women when run by women. The women in these systems were better fit to understand other female perspectives whereas men often felt the need to assert dominance and power. Prime aspects of the police system culture include hierarchal logic where positive value is associated with strong-arm versions of masculinity and negative value is associated with weakness and impotence in femininity (Hatzinger 2002, 146). Another study focused on the relationship between female morality and socioeconomic and demographic status in capital cities. This research found that women that acquire sexual and economic autonomy put themselves at greater risk of femicide as they place themselves against situations of subordination (Ceccon 2016, 2967). On the topic of race, black women in Brazil are two times more likely to face the risk of dying compared to white women (Ceccon 2016, 2965). Studies show that between 60 percent to 70 percent of murders committed against women are chalked up to be femicide and a nerving number of those femicides are young, poor, members of different ethnic minorities, migrants, or sex workers (Ceccon 2016, 2964). It is obvious that women within these minority groups are at an even greater risk of femicide.

Major Santiago first brought our attention to the many challenges women face in Brazil. Women deal with issues regarding wages, social equality, femicide, violence, and much more. Major Santiago brought us the statistic that in Brazil, women between the ages 25 to 44 years old, 21.5% more women finish high school, but earn 23.5% less than men. Further, women only make up 10% of CEOs in the country (Santiago, 2022). From this we can already tell that, in the larger society, women are held to different standards than men and are severely discriminated against. These are similar circumstances to those in the United States therefore, we can relate on some level. However, what we cannot be blind to is the alarming rates, as made clear above, women face violence in Brazil. It is because of these outstanding numbers that Ronda Maria da Penha was founded on March 8, 2015, on international women’s day and named after 11.340/06 Law Maria da Penha. Maria da Penha is a real woman whose husband tried to kill her, twice! Before this law was passed, when a wife would report an incident of violence, the husband would only get community service (Santiago, 2022). This law brought forward five types of violence – physical, moral, sexual, property or possession, and psychological. This is important to put forward in order to educate the public on domestic violence and abuse – which is one of the organization's goals. Along with the main cause being to protect women after they press charges against their partners. In the 7 years that Ronda Maria da Penha has been fighting this battle, all 4,000 women that have been protected by the organization have never faced violence again (Santiago, 2022). All in all, this institution has reached a massive number of people, yet Major Santiago reminds us that the society has a long way to go in regard to violence against women.

It is easy to see that there are serious issues surrounding violence against women in Brazil, and ones that have caused extremely unsafe environments for all women. Major Santiago touched on the inequality all women in Brazil face. However, we see that women of color are even more likely to fall victim to violence. We also acknowledge that many of these issues are often caused by toxic masculinity and the need for power and dominance. While there are some reforms happening, Brazil must continue to fight against these violence's to lessen its tolls. The relationship between race and gender is essential to continue learning about in the wake of this catastrophic violence epidemic.
 
Bibliography
Araujo, Victor, and Malu A. C. Gatto. 2022. “Can Conservatism Make Women More Vulnerable to Violence?” Comparative Political Studies 55, no. 1: 122-153.

Ceccon, Roger Flores, Ian Meneghel Danilevicz, Vania Naomi Hirakata, Stela Nazareth Meneghel, and Bruna Alexandra Rocha da Rosa. 2016. “Femicides: a study in Brazilian state capital cities and large municipalities.” Ciencia & saude coletiva 22, no. 9 (January): 2963-2970.

Hatzinger, Sarah. 2002. “Criminalizing Male Violence in Brazil’s Women’s Police Stations: From Flawed Essentialism to Imagined Communities.” Journal of Gender Studies 11, no 3: 243-251.

Santiago, Denice. “Challenges of Women in Brazil.” Class lecture at Institute Clara Ramos, Salvador, Brazil, May 26, 2022.

Ellie Nielsen is a rising junior at CSBSJU. She is a psychology major with a focus in criminal psychology, as well as a political science minor. She and her family are from Farmington, Minnesota. She likes to read, spend time outside, and be surrounded by friends and family. 

Morgan Ebel is a sophomore at the College of St. Benedict and the University of St. John’s University. She is originally from Farmington, Minnesota (no, she does not live on a farm). Morgan enjoys reading, working out (yoga, lifting, basketball, etc.) and spending time with her puppy named Teddy.
 
Morgan is pursuing a degree in political science and a minor in sociology. Hopefully attaining a law degree in the near future.

By Brianna Kreft

She joined the police force when she was eighteen years old. She founded a violence against women faction in the police force. She was the first Black woman to run for mayor of Salvador, Brazil. She is the one and only Major Denise Santiago.
 
During our second week in Brazil, we had the chance to meet with Major Denise Santiago for a lecture on the challenges of being a woman in Brazil, or more specifically, the violence that women face in Brazil. Major Denise is a major in the Salvador Police Department, and has been with the force for thirty-two years. She works in a division called Ronda Maria da Penha, which is dedicated to protecting women against violence.  Major Denise shared the history of the important legislation that forbids domestic violence against women and told us about the women’s violence prevention programs that Ronda Maria da Penha has founded.

First, Major Denise taught us about Lei 11.340/06, the piece of legislation that forbids domestic violence against women. Lei 11.340/06, or more commonly known as Lei Maria da Penha, is named after a woman who suffered excessive violence at the hands of her husband, but did not receive help from the police. Her husband tried to kill her not once, but twice. The first time, her husband shot her and she was paralyzed from the waist down. The second time, the husband tried to electrocute her while she was in the bath. After reporting both these tragedies, Maria still did not receive any assistance from the police. Major Denise said that this was because Brazil’s culture says that if a husband and wife—or partners of any sort—are arguing, outsiders are supposed to stay out of it. It is between the couple, and no one is supposed to intervene. That did not stop Maria. She gathered a group of women and took her case to the United States, where she was able to make enough noise that the Brazilian police force finally had to listen to her. Before this law, if women reported domestic violence, their partner would either not receive any punishment, or only be sentenced to community service. Thanks to Maria’s hard work and dedication, Lei 11.340/06 created protection for women against domestic violence.
 
Lei Maria da Penha outlaws five types of violence against women. The first is physical violence. This is the most common type for the police to reprimand, because it is the most visible. Women will have bruises, scars, or in extreme cases, even missing limbs. The second type of violence that is forbidden with this law is moral violence. This means that a male partner cannot use degrading language toward a woman in public. The key word here is in public. If a woman is being morally violated within private spaces, it is much more difficult for them to be protected. The third type of violence that is protected is sexual violence. Sexual violence, according to this law, applies not only to martial rape, but also to the man’s power over the woman’s use of contraceptives. It forbids the male partner from banning the female’s use of contraceptives. Patrimonial violence is the fourth type of violence that is protected under Lei Maria de Penha. This refers to violence against a woman’s possessions. A male partner cannot use violence against their female partner’s documents, money, or assets or any kind. The final type of violence is psychological violence. This is the most difficult kind of violence to protect against because it does not leave marks that the human eye can see. It is emotional abuse that damages a woman’s mental well-being and self-confidence. All five of these types of violence are protected against by Lei Mari de Penha.
 
Major Denise went on to tell us about the prevention work that the Ronda Maria da Penha facilitates. One of the prevention programs is called Espelho. Espelho is a board game that Major Denise created herself. Women play the game and encounter realistic situations that depict different kinds of domestic violence. After reading a card and its given situation, the woman chooses how she would act in that situation. If she asserts self-confidence, she moves ahead a few spaces. If she takes the side of the aggressor, she moves back a few spaces. This game is played with fellow women, to build confidence. Another prevention program headed by this police division is the Ronda Para Homens. This is a group of only male officers who talk with men about women’s violence in an attempt to dissuade future violence. Jogos de Futebol is another prevention program that the Ronda Maria da Penha has created. The division found that after soccer matches, domestic violence against women increased by 27%, because male partners got upset about the outcome of the match and took it out on the women. So, Ronda Maria da Penha increased their presence inside Bahia soccer stadiums, and led a soccer themed campaign with the slogan “violence against women is a serious penalty.” Finally, Ronda Maria de Penha leads a violence prevention during carnaval called Carnaval Com a Ronda. This program increases police presence in both private and public parties, focused on spotting violence against women.

Major Denise Santiago has been an agent of change for women’s violence in Brazil. When her days get hard, she remembers one word: Sororidade. This means sorority. Major Denise’s belief in sororidade led her to run for mayor of Salvador, because she knows that only women can create public policies that protect women. She believes that women must not compete with each other. Instead, they must lift up the sororidade. To end her lecture, Major Denise left us with a beautiful sentiment. She said that to her, sororidade is like a mosaic. We [women] are all one piece of this mosaic. When one woman has an achievement, we are all happy for her. When one of us is murdered, it hurts us all, because we are all pieces of one mosaic. It is this sororidade that connects all women and will protect all women.  

Brianna Kreft is a senior at CSB/SJU, majoring in Political Science, and minoring in Environmental Studies and Psychology. She is originally from Elbow Lake, Minnesota. Brianna enjoys learning about gender issues and women’s empowerment. She has participated in multiple research opportunities focused on gender-related social justice issue. Brianna looks forward to being able to learn more about the country that she has been researching for the past two years.

By Hailey Karnowski

As my time here in Brazil comes to an end, I thought I would share two of the most memorable experiences that I had that deepened my understanding of Brazilian culture and led me to further question the persistent topics regarding gender.

Earlier this week, our group had the pleasure of hearing from Major Denice Santiago who is a police officer in Salvador and has helped create a branch of the police force focused strictly on violence against women. Major Denice informed us about the horrors that women face in households, and how justice was rarely sought due to the fear of not being believed or not having any resources in the first place. I had figured that there was still inequality between men and women—since some of our prior research had suggested that—but was clueless to the fact that violence against women ceases to exist across many aspects of the culture.

Before traveling, one of the subtopics we studied was gender’s role in Brazil. One article explained how Brazil still sees a lack of representation of women in power and it was not until 1994 that a woman was elected at the state level (dos Santos and Thomé, 2021). Knowing this, I thought it was amazing that Major Denice started in the police force at the age of 18 and holds a high ranking, but she mentioned to us that there is only so high of a position that women officers can get. Another article expressed how massive the women’s movement in Brazil was to gain the ability to vote only to be faced by backlash, and Major Denice’s talk amplified the idea that this movement has yet to see full equality (Maruci, 2018).

Back to Major Denice’s important topic discussed in her lecture—the violence against women in Brazil has plagued numerous households and has not received the social and governmental attention that it needs. Thankfully, Major Denice helped start a program to solely assist in cases and incidents regarding violence against women, but an earlier experience that I had led me to believe that this violence might not just be in the household.

Last week, those who wanted to were able to see a live Brazilian soccer match at the stadium in Salvador. For those unfamiliar with Brazilian soccer, soccer or “futebol” is arguably one of the most significant parts of Brazilian culture and helps unite the states and country. As an article we explored suggested, soccer is so popular because anyone can play it no matter the race or socioeconomic background and the sport has become a part of many Brazilians’ identity (Eakin, 2017). It truly brings all sorts of different people together, and as a person who loves sports, it was incredible to see this in person.

The game started out like any other major league sport with fans cheering, people buying cups of beer, and guys selling snacks throughout the crowd. However, as the game became tied and the fans became frustrated, I heard numerous sexist slurs being yelled at the players, referees, and even to other fans. I was shocked at some of the things that were being said—of course I know how Americans can get with hockey and football—but it was maddening hearing that the slurs regarded women. It was not until after the game during our lecture with Major Denice that I found out that soccer games are a huge driving force with domestic violence and that the special taskforce actually stays at the stadium to ensure that no women are being harassed or hurt. It was extremely eye opening that a sport so important to a nation holds some toxic behaviors that further the inequalities that women face in society. This experience made me look at Brazil on a more intersectional level, and I realized that although things like soccer are important for unity, there still may be some people that are disadvantaged from it.

Although our course explored inequalities persistent in Brazilian culture, I think it is important to note the changes that are currently being made for a more equal and equitable society for women and other marginalized groups. Since the beginning, powerful women activists have made monumental impacts on the culture that is seen today. Take Bertha Lutz and Dilma Rousseff for example. The two women fought against all odds to further women’s rights and gain political power (Noriega, 2020). Since then, women like Major Denice Santiago have been continuing this journey to fight for women’s rights, and their actions have not gone unnoticed. I can only hope that Brazil and the United States continue these efforts toward equality.

Works Cited:

Eakin, Marshall. “The Beautiful Game: Performing the Freyrean Vision” (2017). In Becoming
Brazilians: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Brazil (New Approaches to the Americas, pp. 165-199). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316800058.007

dos Santos, Pedro A. G. and Thomé, Débora, "Women and Political Power in Brazil"
(2021). Political Science Faculty Publications. 70.
https://digitalcommons.csbsju.edu/polsci_pubs/70

Maruci, Hannah. “Women’s struggle to vote in Brazil: same fight, different strategies” (2018).
Oxford Human Rights Hub. https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/womens-struggle-to-vote-in-brazil-same-fight-different-strategies/

Noriega, Christina. “Herstory: 12 Brazilian Women Who Changed the Course of History”
(2020). ReMezcla. https://remezcla.com/lists/culture/herstory-brazilian-women-changed-course-history/

Hailey Karnowski is a rising senior at the College of Saint Benedict, pursuing a major in sociology and minor in political science. She is originally from Farmington, Minnesota. Hailey is the new president of the CSB rugby team and works for IT Services. She hopes to work in social work or criminology after graduating and is looking forward to gaining new experiences and perspectives while studying abroad.

By Betty Garcia Herrera

What is Pantanal you ask? It’s a telenovela that my host family seems to have their eyes glued to! Just as wehad returned from our trip to Morro de São Paulo, I couldn’t help but observe that my host mother rushed to feed me a quick snack before the premier of the newest episode of Pantantal came on. Her mother, my host grandma, would repeatedly warn her that it would be starting any second as she tried her best to juggle her tasks – “Valeria!” “Valeria!” (my host mother’s name) shouted by her mother as she waited for her to return to the television. “Television has thus become the most significant shape of the image of Brazilian national identity, both internally and externally” (Stam 1995). The living room is quite a distance from the kitchen, and with that she tried her best to converse with me about how my trip was but I knew she wanted to go watch her telenovela so I cut our conversation short. It was quite adorable to have seen her try to make sure I was comfortable, but it made me wonder what this tv show was all about.
 
Next day goes, and I asked my avo what the title of the show was named. She said "Pantanal", and after a quick google search, it is “a Brazilian telenovela produced and broadcast by TV Globo that premiered on 28 March 2022" (Wiki 2022). As I read it was from TV Globo, I was reminded of the covered material in our CD mod class. Our assigned book readings, "Globalizing Brazil" from Becoming Brazilian by Marshall C Eakin. Reading what was related to their programming of telenovelas, "Globo’s creative personnel effectively forged a genre that became quintessentially Brazilian and, at the same time, became one of the most important venues for the national conversation on Brazilian identity" (Straubhaar 2007). With the growing hold TV Globo had on the population of Brazil, I wondered if it was censored into certain topics, but as I read on in the chapter, “The lead writers of the novelas often sought to create a national conversation about critical societal issues – racism, gender roles, corruption, and social justice" (Eakin 2017). This was relieving and interesting to learn about. TV Globo could’ve quite easily become a network that targets the relatability of the elites/higher class, but instead perfected this sort of shift in the production that categorizes telenovelas to be the main topic of inequality, race, and gender!! “Despite spirited debates about the content of novelas, their portrayal of race, and their impact on Brazilians, critics generally agree that they have provided the most important forum for the conversation about national identity since the 1960s” (Eakin, 2017).
 
I decided to tune in, and watch one of the episodes of Pantanal. I didn’t quite understand what was going on, but knew something tragic was going to occur as the suspenseful music would increase through the screen. It did seem quite interesting, and be drawn towards the likability of the male characters as they would have some tension between the male character and a female character. It’s honestly something I would watch voluntarily, but to see the emotions my host family would experience as their favorite character would lead towards trouble was truly unforgettable. TV Globo telenovelas have significantly impacted Brazil, and those who are loyal viewers, like my host mother, view programs that provide the subject of these inequalities with passion and emotion. "Each, in its own way, provided virtually all Brazilians with a vision of Brazil and its place in the world" (Eakin 2017).
 
Works Cited

Eakin, M. (2017). “Globo-lizing” Brazil: Televising Identity. In Becoming Brazilians: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Brazil (New Approaches to the Americas, pp. 136-164). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316800058.006

Joseph D. Straubhaar, World Television: From Global to Local (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2007), 152-57.

Robert Stam, João Luiz Vieira, and Ismael Xavier, “The Shape of Brazilian Cinema in the Postmodern Age,” in Brazilian Cinema, eds., Randal Johnson and Robert Stam, Expanded Edition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 391.

Wikimedia Foundation. (2022, May 23). Pantanal (2022 TV series). Wikipedia. Retrieved May 25, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantanal_(2022 TV Series)
 

Betty Garcia Herrera is an upcoming sophomore at College of Saint Benedict. She's currently majoring in environmental studies on a pre-engineering track. Her hometown is Worthington, Minnesota. Betty loves being apart of the conversation on social justice issues. During her time in Brazil, she hopes to analyzed more deeply how race and gender are important categories in understanding the country’s struggle for social and economic development.

By Lily Fredericks

If you read my last blog post, you know that I was pushing myself to be open to new experiences and interactions, and I am proud to say that I have done this. I also mentioned that I wanted to continue to do this throughout the rest of my time in Brazil. The story I am about to tell definitely demonstrates this, and it lead to an interaction that I never expected, but that I learned a lot from.

One night, I was sitting on the balcony of our apartment with my host mom, her grandson Pedro, and my host mom’s son who was visiting. The topic of conversation ranged widely – from sports, to beer, to school. I began talking with Pedro about his experience with Brazil’s education system, and his lived experience confirmed what I have learned thus far, which was cool to hear. He said that the higher education system is unfair in many ways and that it is not accessible for racial minorities. At the Steve Biko Institute, I learned that many black folks come from public high schools which are much worse due to racist societal dynamics and lower income levels, but then the white folks take up the spots at the excellent free public colleges. In 2002, colleges started reserving spots for black folks, but the ENEM exam is the only thing that matters for admission, and blacks are therefore much less prepared for it (Jorge Rivera, 5/19/22). Pedro then asked me if I liked Brazil’s current President, Jair Bolsonaro. I was a bit nervous to answer because I was not sure of his opinion, but I told him based on what I have learned about Bolsonaro and the ways in which his policies have affected the marginalized, I was not a big fan of him. I learned from Xavier Vatin that former president Lula, even though he had some problems as well, gave the youth a higher opportunity to achieve higher education, but Bolsonaro has been and wants to destroy this system and affirmative action (Xavier Vatin, 5/19/22). Pedro quickly agreed and asserted his strong passion against Bolsonaro. He described him as racist and much worse than former U.S. President, Donald Trump, after I said that I saw a lot of parallels between Bolsonaro and Trump. He then told me that my host mom (his grandma) loves Bolsonaro, and so does his mom. I was a bit taken aback by this, especially given what Pedro had just voiced. I thought it was interesting when he said that he was unsure of why his mom liked Bolsonaro because she is young and works in healthcare, but she is also evangelical. This made some sense to me because I learned from Willy Santos that conservatives and Bolsonaro supporters are more likely to be evangelical or Catholic (Willy Santos, 5/16/22). I asked Pedro why my host mom likes the President, in which is responded that he was not sure, but he could ask her for me. I was hesitant for him to do this, but if I have learned anything from studying political science, it is that we need to ask these questions because if we shy away from talking about politics, nothing will be accomplished.

Upon asking her, she said firmly that Bolsonaro “is my president and my leader,” as she put her palm on her heart. I could already see a different side to her that I had not seen over the past 2 and a half weeks. I thought that maybe she liked Bolsonaro because she was partly following along with Brazil’s color blind “racial democracy” ideology, in which many citizens do not think there is racism present, or they do not see a problem with what happened in the past (Carillo 2021, pg. 58). Pedro and her son (who is also not fond of Bolsonaro) questioned her and mentioned that I also was not a fan of the president, and she said with disgust, “What? You like Lula? No way.” At this point, I could see tensions were rising, and since I am still learning about politics in Brazil, I chose to say that I was not a big fan of Bolsonaro or Lula. However, this was not enough for her, as I could tell she was not happy. I told Pedro to tell her that I am still learning and that I do not want to offend her, but upon trying to get her attention, she told Pedro that we should be ashamed of ourselves and that she does not want to talk to “our kind of people.” At this point I was shocked and anxious. I thought that now she did not like me anymore and the rest of my time in her house would be very awkward, but I was wrong. After I went and showered an hour later, it was as if this conversation had never happened. She greeted me with her usual “Leelee!” and it seemed that she had not held a grudge, and for this I was grateful. Oftentimes in the U.S., it seems like people hold political grudges for some time and they judge someone else’s entire character based off of how they side politically. However, I was pleased that my host mom did not do this. It shows that even though we do not agree on politics in this case, our personalities can still get along and we can still maintain our bond, and I think there is something to be learned from this. If we refuse to have conversations and interact with people that disagree with us, we will never reach common ground.

Despite this difficult interaction, I have created a lovely relationship with my host mom and I know that I will keep in touch with her in the future. The past week in Brazil has been fun, but it has been more anxiety-inducing than the previous week, most likely because reality is hitting, and I am getting a bit run down from all of the constant activities. With this, I have found myself to be feeling more insecure in the big group setting. However, when I come back to my host home, I feel comfortable and at ease, something that I did not feel yet when I returned home at the beginning of the trip. I think this says a lot about the relationship and bond I have developed with my host mom and family – that even in a foreign country, I have found a place that feels more like home at times than when I am with my peers from the U.S. This is not to say that our group is not a wonderful group people, because they are, but I often find it refreshing to come home to people who don’t know my past, don’t know by baggage, and still unconditionally accept and welcome me. Even though I am excited to go back and see my own mom and family in the U.S., this experience will forever be something I cherish.

Citations:
Carrillo, Ian. “Racialized Organizations and Color-Blind Racial Ideology in Brazil.” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 7, no. 1 (2020): 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649220943223.

Jorge Rivera, “Education and Affirmative Action in Brazil,” Steve Biko Institute, 5/20/22.

Xavier Vatin, “The African Diaspora in Bahia: A Socio-Anthropological Perspective,” UFRB Cachoeira, 5/19/22.

Willy Santos, “Candomblé and Religions in Brazil,” ICR Brasil, 5/16/22.

By Ryan Engel and Zach Jans

As we end our time here in Brazil, we are going to share some of our final observations and connections. We have made several connections from what we have seen and learned here to what we learned early this semester. However, we will continue to share a couple that we thought really stood out.

One lecture that stood out to us was the lecture by Major Denice. She has been a police officer in Brazil for 32 years, and she spoke to us about discrimination against women in Brazil. From her lecture, one thing that stood out to me was that the highest a woman can get in the police ranking is the third highest. No woman moves past that ranking. Right away, we thought it was crazy that a woman who has been a cop for 32 years is stuck in the same ranking and cannot go any higher. As we thought about it more, we realized that this idea significantly connected to the subtopic that we researched (violence against minorities). From our research earlier in the semester, there was a quote that greatly related to this note. The quote stated, ​“policewomen clearly saw themselves as discriminated against, as women, in their police careers—they could cite endless accounts of male counterparts who ‘didn’t think they could handle the tougher cases’ and so on” (Hautzinger, 2002, 247). The connection here is that male police officers do not take the women in their field as seriously as themselves. Therefore, this leads to women being stuck in the lower rankings of the police force. This exemplifies how women are discriminated against in the workplace and in society in Brazil.

Another lecture that stood out to us was a lecture regarding Trans Rights in Brazil. The biggest fact that was reiterated in this lecture was that murders of trans people happen most in Brazil. Along with that, our speaker believes that this issue is largely due to a systemic issue in the country and not an individualistic issue. It was interesting to hear that because we are having a lot of doubts about our system here in the US regarding racial discrimination and gun violence. However, a quote from my research earlier in the semester backs the statement of trans violence being a systemic issue. It states that “it is important to note that there was limited information on perpetrators, primarily due to the underreporting of these crimes. This happens due to the inefficiency of Brazil's criminal justice system, leading to a lack of effective measures to address homophobia” (Mendes, Furtado Passos da Silva, 2020, 1713). This quote highlights a great example of how the system is failing society here in Brazil. The underreporting and limited information on these crimes towards trans people just sends a larger message that the government and those in charge do not prioritize these specific minorities.

Another experience that we found interesting was our day trip to Cachoeira. While in Cachoeira, our visit to the Danneman cigar factory stood out to me because there were aspects that seemed to go against the norm of Brazil and also aspects that seemed to follow the gender norms in Brazil. When thinking back to the readings, I feel as if this quote by Silva comes to mind when thinking about the cigar factory. “The Oral History of the participants reveals that the dominance over women, position as head of the family, family provider, and exacerbated sexuality are social attributes of masculinity” (Silva, et al., 2020). I feel as if this quote is challenged a bit when it comes to the cigar factory. As men are usually the providers and women tend to stay home, every employee making cigars in the factory was a woman. This is something you typically do not see in Brazil.

Although females were the ones working and producing the cigars, there was still an aspect that followed the gender norms in Brazil. While all the females were at work and doing the manual labor, the person overseeing the whole process and making sure everything was running smoothly was a male. The man was not doing any of the dirty work and was there just doing what seemed to be “monitoring”. This followed most of the theories that we read about before coming to Brazil and showed the male dominance that all articles talk about. A quote from one of the readings that reminded me of this dominance was, “Even when women have paid work activities, and they have a superior financial situation than that of their partners, to the point of promoting the livelihood of the home, the role as head of the family usually remains as belonging to the man” (Silva, et al., 2020). This quote seems fitting because the females may have a paid work activity, but there is always a man in a superior power.

Works Cited
Hautzinger, Sarah. Rep. Criminalising Male Violence in Brazil's Women's Police Stations: From Flawed Essentialism to Imagined Communities 11. No. Vol. 11. 3. Carfax Publishing, 2002

Mendes, Wallace Góes, and Cosme Marcelo Furtado Passos da Silva. Rep. Homicide of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Travestis, Transexuals, and Transgender People (LGBT) in Brazil: a Spatial Analysis, 2020.

Silva, et al. “Social Attributes of the Male That Incite the Violence by Intimate Partner.” REBEn, 2020.

Ryan Engel is a sophomore at CSB/SJU, pursuing a major in Accounting/Finance with a minor in Communications. He is originally from Green Bay, Wisconsin. Ryan enjoys broadening his horizons by traveling and learning about different places, people, and cultures. He is also a sports fanatic, including playing soccer at Saint John's University. He looks forward to exploring a new part of the world while studying abroad in Brazil in May 2022

My name is Zach Jans and I am finishing my sophomore year at SJU. I am currently an Elementary Education and Political Science double major. I am from St. Michael, MN. A big reason I like learning about teaching and why I am excited to be a teacher is that I look forward to finding ways to motivate all students and be a role model for young students. I have always been involved with sports, playing baseball and basketball my whole life, until college. I stay active in intramurals. Outside of school, I like to golf, hangout with friends and family, and spend time at my cabin.

By Kailee Hagl and Hailey Karnowski

There are many political and social expectations we thought we would experience and observe while in Brazil. Throughout the semester, we studied race, gender, and inequality in Brazil. We read literature that focused on the LGBTQ+ community, political ideologies, environmental issues, and much more. In our study abroad portion of the class, we have observed and experienced specifics that either confirm or deny our expectations of Brazil after reading scholarly literature. We also find it important to address common misconceptions that we were able to debunk through our observations here.

Much of our research prior to our trip to Salvador included the movements, notably high violence, discrimination, and misconceptions surrounding LGBTQ+ rights. With Brazil being the massive, diverse country that it is, we assumed that much of this could be visible amongst society and in the media in Brazil. According to one of our authors, Omar Encarnación, Brazil is “world-renown for celebrating sexual diversity and gender non-conformity” and persists in social movements despite political backlash (Encarnación, 2018). On Monday, May 17th, some of our expectations of the visibility of the LGBTQ+ movements were supported. Our trip to Pelourhinho, Salvador happened to be the same day of an LGBTQ+ historic day. Sure enough, hundreds of people crowded the streets celebrating the day of anti-homosexuality. Other than this one account, the appearance of LGBTQ+ culture and acceptance have yet to be seen—although this could be due to differences in culture and expression amongst the LGBTQ+ community in Brazil.

Importantly, our research regarding LGBTQ+ rights in Brazil highlighted the high rate of violence against transgender and other LGBTQ+ individuals. With Brazil being one of (if not) the most dangerous countries for LGBTQ+ identifying individuals to live, we expected there to be some sort of acknowledgement of the presence of the transgender and gender non-conforming community. One article we explored mentioned not only the violence against LGBTQ+ members, but the negative actions such as deadnaming and religion enforcing that persists in Brazil as well (Calling, 2020). Again, we expected to see or hear about some of these encounters while being immersed in the Brazilian culture, but it is more than possible that the unfamiliar language spoken and lack of exploration of the entire culture has limited our observations. Despite this, we did expect to see more openly expressive LGBTQ+ and gender non-conforming community members than we have thus far.

The literature about environmental issues addresses the ever-expanding urbanization of the country as well as the fight to preserve vegetations, especially the Amazon. So far in Brazil, we have seen how much of the larger cities are constructing more and more housing. This confirms our expectations as previous literature has stated metro areas in Brazil are expanding and deforestation is occurring. One author concludes, “Despite the effort to integrate the activities of conservation and preservation with the demands for expansion of the city, urban areas are still advancing on remaining vegetation areas” (Young 2013, 113). This also addresses our expectations as we expected to see efforts of conservation in populated areas that are continuing to grow. We constantly see workers planting trees and various plants; however, we also see buildings in construction everywhere. Therefore, what we have observed while abroad have both confirmed and denied our expectations.

There are also common misconceptions that are important to address when discussing Brazil. The first is that Brazil is a poor country. This is not the case as Brazil has one of the quickest growing economies and is rich in natural resources. The country has a steadily increasing GDP as well.  Although there are many poor areas with hillside houses, there are also many rich areas with skyscrapers. The second common misconception is that Brazilians do not experience racial inequality since they are essentially a melting pot of race and culture. This is also false, and there is literature to help confirm; “Inequality persists in Brazilian society and black activists have struggled to create a more equitable society” (Mitchell-Walthour 2017, 20). The inequality Afro-Brazilians experience affect them in all aspects of their lives, especially education. While abroad we learned about the Brazilian education system and how the system is rigged to benefit the rich and white, while making it harder for those who are black or poor to get into a federal university after high school. This confirms that Brazilians do experience inequality in their everyday lives.

Overall, there are many political and social expectations we thought we would experience and observe while in Brazil, and our lectures, experiences, and observations have helped us to come to these conclusions. A final thought to keep in mind would be that everything is not always as it seems, and actually observing and experiencing something for yourself is an efficient way to conduct research and find answer to our hypotheses.
 
References
 
Calling, Nikita. 2020. “Stigmatization and Discrimination: A Qualitative Case Study of the
Transgender Community in Brazil.” Lund University LUP Student Papers. https://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers/search/publication/9011192
 
Encarnación, Omar G. 2018. “A Latin American Puzzle: Gay Rights Landscapes in Argentina
and Brazil.” Human Rights Quarterly 40 (1): 194–218. https://search-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.csbsju.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=127958474&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
 
Mitchell-Walthour, Gladys. 2017. The Politics of Blackness: Racial Identity and Political Behavior in Contemporary Brazil. The Politics of Blackness: Racial Identity and Political Behavior in Contemporary Brazil. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316888742.
 
Young, Andrea. 2013. “Urbanization, Environmental Justice, and Social-Environmental Vulnerability in Brazil.” In Urbanization and Sustainability: Linking Urban Ecology, Environmental Justice and Global Environmental Change, 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5666-3_7.

Kailee Hagl is a junior at CSB/SJU and is majoring in Political Science with a focus on law. She also is pursuing a minor in Hispanic Studies, as well as a minor in Latin American Studies. She is originally from Sauk Centre, Minnesota. Kailee enjoys learning about politics in other countries, social justice issues, and analyzing court cases. She looks forward to applying her experience abroad to her academics in her final year at CSB/SJU.

Hailey Karnowski is a rising senior at the College of Saint Benedict, pursuing a major in sociology and minor in political science. She is originally from Farmington, Minnesota. Hailey is the new president of the CSB rugby team and works for IT Services. She hopes to work in social work or criminology after graduating and is looking forward to gaining new experiences and perspectives while studying abroad.

By Hailee Thayer

In the two weeks that we’ve been in Bahia, Brazil, we have learned more about the culture and political landscape than we could ever have in the classroom. We have been staying with a host family, which allowed us to immerse ourselves fully in Brazilian culture. I first started noticing Brazilian Elections and politics.

On the first day, we were driving from the airport to the hotel. There was a lot of graffiti, but one that stuck out to me was the phrase “Fora Bolsonaro” which translates to “Out Bolsonaro” in English.

This has still stayed with me and shows the general political leaning of the city. This dynamic is even present in my host home. When I returned home one night, I went to sit with my host dad to watch soccer. At first he turned on the news and turned-on CNN. The Republican Primaries were on, and the topic of conversation turned to politics. My host dad asked if Trump still had a following in the United States, I responded yes and used it as an opportunity to see which way he leaned. I asked if he liked Bolsonaro, and he replied “No, I think he is a bad ruler and a bit authoritarian”. This is a common thought with everyone that I’ve interacted with. I also learned that Lula, served as the Brazilian President from 2003 to 2010, was instrumental for rural communities, specifically for education. Lula and Dilma Rousseff introduced quotas to the Brazilian education system for higher education. These quotas are there in order to diversify the population of higher education institutions. They have greatly increased the number of Black students that attend both public and private universities. On that same train of thought, gender quotas have increased the presence of women in Brazilian Political Parties. But despite the quota, the number of women elected to government positions remains low (Gatto and Wylie 2021, 3). The representation of women in politics is an important issue to me, and to see gender quotas working (even if the number of women in government positions is still what we consider to be low), it gives me hope for the future.

Another important aspect of Brazilian culture is Carnaval. Many people think of Carnaval as a big parade with extravagant costumes, but it is so much more than that. Carnaval used to be a celebration for Brazilian Elites (also known as the Portuguese/Europeans) and would take place inside houses. Salves during this time started dancing and celebrating in the streets. This later became what Carnaval is today. It represents racial pride and many of the songs and instruments played are of African origin. Carnaval in Rio de Janeiro “became the most holy ritual of mestiço nationalism and the celebration of mestiçagem” (Eakin 2017, 91). Mestiçagem refers to ‘the mixing’ and is the term for the mixing of mainly African and Indigenous people, but also between African, Indigenous, and European people. This idea was present during Carnaval, but now Carnaval is a celebration of Black Pride. We also went to Casa do Carnaval, a museum all about the history and culture of Carnaval. We saw costumes from different ‘blocos’ or Carnaval groups. We also saw different individual costumes and one of them reminded me about the Mulata we read about in class. The Mulata is described as “thee most potent image of Brazilian sexuality” (Eakin 2017, 108). The Mulata became the ideal type of woman that every woman aspired to be. These lead to interesting gender dynamics within Brazilian society, but also within Carnaval itself. Below is an image of a costume that a woman wore during Carnaval. The dress itself looks like it emphasizes the chest area of the woman and her curves with how tight the dress is. There are still manifestations of the Mulata in Brazilian society and Carnaval.
 

The last interesting and important aspect of Brazilian culture are Afro-Brazilian religions. The one we learned the most about is Candomblé. This is a religion that was created through syncretism. Syncretism is the “process by which elements of 1 religion are assimilated into another religion resulting in a change in the nature of the religion. It creates an entirely new religion” (Lecture on Umbanda and Candomblé, May 16, 2022). When the Slave Trade was going on in Brazil, African people were taken from all over the continent and brought them to Brazil. This created a mixing of different religious traditions and customs and with Catholicism which resulted in Umbanda and Candomblé. In Candomblé, practioners worship 12 spirits, or gods, called Orixás. The Orixás that are recognized in Brazil are Oxalá, Lemanjá, Xangô, Iansã, Oxóssi, Ogum, Oxum, Exú, Omulu, Nanã, Ossaim, and Oxumaré. Because of the mixing with Catholicism, the Orixás have been associated with Catholic Saints. For example, the Orixá, Oxalá is associated with Jesus. Each Orixá is associated with a color and nature element as well as having a unique symbol. Many Brazilians practice Candomblé and I consider it to be a key aspect of Afro-Brazilian culture and heritage.
 
 
Works Cited
Eakin, Marshall C. “Communicating and Understanding Mestiçagem Radio, Samba, and Carnaval.” Essay. In Becoming Brazilian: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Brazil, 79–106. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Eakin, Marshall C. “Visualizing Mestiçagem Literature, Film, and the Mulata.” Essay. In Becoming Brazilian: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Brazil, 107–35. Cambridge University Press, 2017.

Gatto, Malu AC, and Kristin N Wylie. “Informal Institutions and Gendered Candidate Selection in Brazilian Parties.” Party Politics, 2021, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/13540688211008842.

Santos, Willys. Lecture on “Umbanda and Candomblé: The History, Tenets, and Practices” May
16, 2022, Salvador, Brazil.

By Betty Garcia Herrera
 
In the introduction of learning the systemic structure of Brazil, it definitely caught me by surprise. It was quite easy to have read about all the difficulties Brazilians face socially, and economically in our short CD mod class, but to have the ability to view it clear as day definitely brought more clarity. Never had I imagined there was this much of a wide gap to the lack of representation in such a diverse country, learn about the struggles individuals/organizers face in developing more projects, and creating this atmosphere of cultural appreciation towards the various ethnic groups in Brazil. Nations will continue to exist (and some will remain very powerful) but global culture industries will also continue to fragment, differentiate, and deterritorialize (Larrin 2000). In a sense this made me reflect on the living conditions my parents experienced in adjusting to a new country and their difficulties for equality, and how I was able to relate to these organizers in their struggles of trying to show more cultural appreciation in their environment. It’s quite difficult being limited to resources to have the chance to flourish, and expected to work twice as hard to receive half of what others achieve, but that’s just the reality many of us with darker skin complexion, and ethnic features face.

Gaining the opportunity to live with a host family has continued to open my horizon into learning first hand their personal up comings. My host mother is of a darker complexion, and has continued to strive her hardest to provide the best education for her daughters. Racism was very much a part of this intraclass struggle. In spite of traditional discourse in Brazil about “racial democracy,” the darkest Brazilians have the least education, live in the most precarious housing, hold the worst jobs, get the lowest pay (even for the same jobs as lighter Brazilians), die youngest, and hold very few elected posts or high positions in business, government, or the military (Caipora Women’s Group 1993; Fiola 1990).  After a few days of adjusting, and getting the preview of the education system in Brazil, I asked my host mother about what process she had set her daughters through. I’ve met one of her daughters, and she’s becoming a doctor. I admire her strength, and will continue to support her on her path. I haven’t met her other daughter as she’s studying in Portugal to become a lawyer. Her daughters both had a private education, but it wasn’t easily done. Apart from living in the city, she has her own jewelry business called Quintal. Going to plug in her instagram, @use_quintal. Her work deserves more appreciation!! I love seeing her passion for this exceed as I shared a few pictures of her work with my friends’ and they instantly purchased her items! She also manages her farm outside of the city. There were a few pictures she showed me, and felt this source of connection between us.

I had no great detail about my host family previously coming to Brazil, and all I knew was that she was middle class. I felt it was right to have shared about my background, and how there wasn’t enough unity in my community as it has become highly diverse. As well the background of my parents. My mother has her own land in Guatemala, and as I told her she grew in awe of her. My host mother wishes to one day have the ability to retire on her farm land, and instantly she reminded me of my mother. Side note, I felt this connection that she is exactly like my mother just from another country. I have not once felt homesick as my host mom showed the exact same love I receive from my mother. (Te Amo Mami)

Before coming to college, I had faced many difficulties in having the ability to receive higher education. Never did I think college was available for me as my options were very limited. My best, and most stable path was to enter the workforce, and stay there despite all my hardworking time and effort I’ve put into school. I can imagine this falls the same with many kids who have these same circumstances. Blacks are more concentrated in regions where the number of higher education institutions is lower, which may affect the access rates by race/color. (Artes,A.& Ricoldi 2015). Learning about the Instituto Cultural of Steve Biko - Education and affirmative action in Brazil, I was reminded of a program back in my hometown that supported me in the process of the college path, Upward Bound. They provided the resources for us to study for the ACT, and guided us through our choices of which college would be the best fit for us. The Instituto Cultural of Steve Biko provided the resources to prepare students for the ENEM exam, which decides what school is the best fit for the student based on their results, and additionally provide this space for these students to learn more about their ancestry, themselves, and their potential. Honestly I was jealous as this program truly creates the environment for leaders to find their voice and advocate for racial inequality issues. I felt a bit defeated learning about the hardships that Brazil has faced, and what slow economic growth it has received. It had its chance to strive, but unfortunately it just didn’t occur. There is far too much grief from many researchers I’ve heard from in Brazil about its lost potential, but from these hardships all I’ve seen so far is growth. Too often those who have fervently appealed to this grand narrative as Brazil’s past, and its present, also assume that it is Brazil’s future (Van Delden, M. 2001).

Bibliography
 
Artes, A., & Ricoldi, A. M. (2015). Acesso de Negros no ensino superior: O que mudou entre 2000 e 2010. Cadernos de Pesquisa. Retrieved May 21, 2022, from https://www.scielo.br/j/cp/a/tttVNfkLTtGXpmB8JDFcdnD/?lang=pt
 
Children on the Streets of the Americas : Globalization, Homelessness and Education in the United States, Brazil, and Cuba, edited by Roslyn Arlin Mickelson, Taylor & Francis Group, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/csbsju/detail.action?docID=178419.
 
Jorge Larrain, Identity and Modernity in Latin America (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), 170.
Van Delden, M. (2001). [Review of the book Identity and Modernity in Latin America]. Modernism/modernity 8(4), 702-703. doi:10.1353/mod.2001.0095.
 
Van Delden, M. (2001). [Review of the book Identity and Modernity in Latin America]. Modernism/modernity 8(4), 702-703. doi:10.1353/mod.2001.0095.

Betty Garcia Herrera is an upcoming sophomore at College of Saint Benedict. She's currently majoring in environmental studies on a pre-engineering track. Her hometown is Worthington, Minnesota. Betty loves being apart of the conversation on social justice issues. During her time in Brazil, she hopes to analyzed more deeply how race and gender are important categories in understanding the country’s struggle for social and economic development.

By Grace Terlinden

The biggest learning experience so far on the trip has been learning the influence that slavery had on Brazil. As Xavier Vatin mentioned in his lecture on, “The African Diaspora in Bahia: A Socio-Anthropological Perspective” there were over eight million slaves whom are thought to be brought to Brazil largely from Angola, Benin, Congo, and others (Brazil An Inconvenient Truth). All documentation of enslaved peoples were burned after abolition in 1888 which inhibits opportunities for Brazilians to connect with their African heritage, however the cultural influence from Africa cannot be dismissed or destroyed (Vatin 2022).  The impact enslaved peoples had on Brazilian culture remains today through music, dance, and has implications on all aspects of Brazilian life, and still effects politics today.

Music in Brazil still maintains many of it’s African characteristics and genres that were created by Africans. The lecture at the beginning of the percussion workshop with Mario Pam and Ilê Ahiê taught us that many of the musical genres that today Brazilians enjoy such as samba, jazz, and blues were all created by Africans. An outlet in which this musical influence shines through is during carnaval. Although carnaval started as a European tradition, but expanded into what it is today, because of black artists. An important aspect to carnaval is showcasing the Afro-Brazilian music styles such as Samba (Eakin 2017). The Afro-Brazilian influence of carnaval is not always appreciated, and has received backlash from the state. Marshall Eakin explained this struggle for representation and accreditation in his chapter Samba, Carnaval, and Getúlio Vargas and said, “The lower classes that created and sustained the escolas de samba began a long struggle with the representatives of the State as each attempted to control and determine the direction of carnaval with samba at its center” (2017). This quote probes that although African influence has made Brazilian music and carnaval what it is today, they are not always properly acknowledged for their success. As seen with carnaval, music is often accompanied with dance, and in the case of Brazil, dance is also heavily influenced by the enslaved people.

Some of the most popular forms of dance in Brazil were either created or heavily influenced by enslaved peoples. Capoeira was created by slaves in order to defend themselves from their oppressors, but presently it is less about self-defense and more of a dance. In our workshop with Mestre Sapoti, he explained that today Capoeira is used to remember the atrocities of slavery and to keep pushing towards racial equality (2022).  It is a common misconception that enslaved peoples were not pushing back against oppression, but amidst the tyranny, Capoeira is proof that all along enslaved people were constantly fighting back. Gladys Mitchell-Walthour stated in their book The Politics of Blackness: Racial Identity and Political Behavior in Contemporary Brazil, “Running away and revolts were forms of resistance. There were a number of revolts led by enslaved people” (2017). Afro-Brazilians created many forms of art such as dance and music as a form of resistance, and in the case of Capoeira as a revolt against slave owners. Not only did Afro-Brazilians create a lot of the music and dance enjoyed today in Brazil, but they did it in spite of the violence their oppressors held over their heads.

The influence of slavery in Brazil has sparked my interest since being here, because although slavery is often thought to have happened a long long time ago and some consider it’s impacts to no longer exist. It didn’t really hit me how little time has passed since slaveries abolition until taking to our tour guide Fredi who showed me a picture of his father-in-law whose father was a slave.  This interaction was important to my understanding about the individual as well as collective impacts that slavery still has on Brazil and internationally. Slavery’s influence on Brazilian culture is certainly important, but the individual impacts it still has today should be acknowledged. The “color-blind” ideology that has been popularized in Brazil as a form of complete racial equality is therefore the quite opposite of equal. Without acknowledging the cultural and social implications that the legacy of slavery has on Brazil will only exacerbate racial inequality. Raising awareness and giving credit to Afro-Brazilians who have made positive influences on music, dance, and culture is also an important step towards repairing racial inequalities.
 
Works Cited:
 
Brazil An Inconvenient Truth : BBC Documentary. 2020. Video.
 
Eakin, Marshall C. 2017. «Communicating and Understanding Mestiçagem: Radio, Samba, and
Carnaval». Chapter in . Becoming Brazilians: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-
Century Brazil, 79–106. New Approaches to the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316800058.004.
 
Eakin, Marshall C. 2017. «The Sounds of Cultural Citizenship». Chapter in . Becoming
Brazilians: Race and National Identity in Twentieth-Century Brazil, 200–219. New Approaches to the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316800058.008.
 
Mitchell-Walthour, Gladys L. 2017. The Politics of Blackness: Racial Identity and Political
Behavior in Contemporary Brazil. Cambridge Studies in Stratification Economics:
Economics and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316888742.