PEDRO A. G. DOS SANTOS, PH.D.
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​Women’s Representation, Empowerment, and Gender Based Violence in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities

​Sources and Suggested Readings:

Acevedo, E. (2023). Gender-Based Violence and Femicide in Mexico: Why Is the Law Failing to Protect Mexico’s Women? In International Responses to Gendered-Based Domestic Violence. Routledge.

Ahrens-Viquez, A. (2020, August 4). Obstacles to International Conventions Protecting Women in Mexico. JUSTICE IN MEXICO. https://justiceinmexico.org/intl-conventions-women-mexico/

Alcocer, M., Skillman, R., & Torres-Beltran, A. (2025). Female mayors and violence against women: Evidence from Mexico. Political Science Research and Methods, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2025.10030

Alexander, A. C., Bolzendahl, C., & Jalalzai, F. (Eds.). (2018). Measuring Women’s Political Empowerment across the Globe: Strategies, Challenges and Future Research. Palgrave Macmillan.

Araújo, V., & Gatto, M. A. C. (2022). Can Conservatism Make Women More Vulnerable to Violence? Comparative Political Studies, 55(1), 122–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140211024313

Beyer Velez, S. (2024, July 19). Why Mexican feminists are wary of Claudia Sheinbaum, the country’s first female president. The Latin Times. https://www.latintimes.com/why-mexican-feminists-are-wary-claudia-sheinbaum-countrys-first-female-president-555365

Blaydes, L., Fearon, J. D., & MacDonald, M. (2025). Understanding Intimate Partner Violence. Annual Review of Political Science, 28(Volume 28, 2025), 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041322-044022

Botelho, J. C. A., & Silva, R. R. (2021). Presidential Powers in Latin America Beyond Constitutions. Iberoamericana – Nordic Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 50(1). https://doi.org/10.16993/iberoamericana.508

Carneiro, A., Jalalzai, F., & Santos, P. (2023). Gendered political violence as a legal framework: An analysis of the brazilian reality. Estudos Eleitorais, 16, 221–241. https://doi.org/10.57025/14145146_v16n2_car.adr

Celis, K., & Childs, S. (2020). Feminist Democratic Representation. Oxford University Press.

Celis, K., & Lovenduski, J. (2018). Power struggles: Gender equality in political representation. 1(1–2), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1332/251510818X15272520831085

Cénat, J. M., Amédée, L. M., Onesi, O., Darius, W. P., Barara, R., González Villarreal, D., Moshirian Farahi, S. M. M., Labelle, P. R., & Hébert, M. (2025). Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence Among Women and Men in Mexico: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 26(1), 20–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241271345

Chaves, V. S., Macias, L. F. C., Ribas, F., Lovenduski, J., & Cowper-Coles, M. (2024). Representing Women in Latin America. King’s Institute for Women’s Leadership.

Cheibub, J. A., Elkins, Z., & Ginsburg, T. (2010). Latin American Presidentialism in Comparative and Historical Perspective Symposium: Latin American Constitutionalism: Section III: Constitutional Structure. Texas Law Review, 89(7), 1707–1740.

Delaporte, M., & Pino, F. (2022). Female Political Representation and Violence Against Women: Evidence from Brazil. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4135928

dos Santos, P. A. G., & Jalalzai, F. (2021). Women’s Empowerment and Disempowerment in Brazil: The Rise and Fall of President Dilma Rousseff (1st edition). Temple University Press.

Estrada-García, M.-C., Ruíz-Barrios, A., Saldaña-José, M., Ruíz-Barrios, K.-F., & Salazar-Martínez, N.-V. (2024). Claudia Sheinbaum and gender inclusion, a real commitment or political strategy? Analysis of her presidential campaign in X. Revista Panamericana de Comunicación, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.21555/rpc.v6i2.3301

Funk, K. D., Silva, T., & Escobar-Lemmon, M. C. (2019). Leading toward equality: The effect of women mayors on gender equality in local bureaucracies. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 7(3), 554–573. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2017.1403932

Garcia, D. (2024). Femicides and Female Presidents: A Comparative Study on the Development of Laws Against Femicide in Mexico and Honduras. The International Law Review Association Student Forum, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.25172/ilrasf.3.1.2

Garica Nice, B. (2025, December 11). Mexico’s President, the Latest Victim of Violence Against Women • Stimson Center. Stimson Center. https://www.stimson.org/2025/mexicos-president-the-latest-victim-of-violence-against-women/

Harrison, C. (2026, April 16). Approval Tracker: Mexico’s President Claudia Sheinbaum. AS/COA. https://www.as-coa.org/articles/approval-tracker-mexicos-president-claudia-sheinbaum

Htun, M., & Weldon, S. L. (2018). The Logics of Gender Justice: State Action on Women’s Rights Around the World. Cambridge University Press.

Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2025). Monthly ranking of women in national parliaments. IPU Parline: Global Data on National Parliaments. https://data.ipu.org/women-ranking/

Jalalzai, F. (2015). Women Presidents of Latin America: Beyond Family Ties? Routledge.

Jalalzai, F., Kreft, B., Martinez-Port, L., dos Santos, P. A. G., & Smith, B. M. (2022). A tough woman around tender men: Dilma Rousseff, gendered double bind, and misogynistic backlash. Frontiers in Political Science, 4. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpos.2022.926579

Krook, M. L. (2017). Violence Against Women in Politics. Journal of Democracy, 28(1), 74–88.

Leitão, C. (2018). Imaginário, mulher e poder no Brasil: Reflexões acerca do impeachment de Dilma Rousseff. In L. Rubim & F. Argolo (Eds.), O Golpe na perspectiva de Gênero. EDUFBA.

Lewis, P. C., Kaslow, N. J., Cheong, Y. F., Evans, D. P., & Yount, K. M. (2024). Femicide in the United States: A call for legal codification and national surveillance. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1338548. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1338548

Linthicum, K. (2025, September 14). How Mexican President Claudia Sheinbaum carved her own path [News]. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2025-09-14/claudia-sheinbaum-first-year

Mainwaring, S. (1990). Presidentialism in Latin America. Latin American Research Review, 25(1), 157–179.

Mansbridge, J. (2003). Rethinking Representation. American Political Science Review, 97(04), 515–528. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000856

Melo, M. A. (2009). Strong Presidents, Robust Democracies? Separation of Powers and Rule of Law in Latin America. Brazilian Political Science Review, 3, 30–59. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-3858200900020002

Mendes, I. (2019). Inclusion and political representation in peace negotiations: The case of the Colombian victims’ delegations. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 11(3), 272–297.

Miklos, M., May 27, S. B. |, & 2025. (n.d.). The Alarming Rise of Gender-Based Violence in Brazil. Americas Quarterly. Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/the-alarming-rise-of-gender-based-violence-in-brazil/

Nascimento, L. (2026, March 10). Ataques a Maria da Penha tentam enfraquecer conquistas, diz instituto. Agência Brasil. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/direitos-humanos/noticia/2026-03/ataques-maria-da-penha-tentam-enfraquecer-conquistas-diz-instituto

Neumann, P. (2023). The Limits of the Law: Women, Violence, and Legal Ambivalence in Nicaragua. Qualitative Sociology, 46(2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-023-09534-w

Nicaragua approves constitutional reforms giving president expansive powers. (2025, January 30). Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/1/30/nicaragua-approves-constitutional-reforms-giving-president-expansive-powers

Organization of American States. (2026). About the Belém do Pará Convention [Text]. https://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/convention.asp

Piscopo, J. M. (2016). State Capacity, Criminal Justice, and Political Rights. Rethinking Violence against Women in Politics. Política y Gobierno, 23(2), 437–458.

Piscopo, J. M., & Vázquez Correa, L. (2024). From 30 percent to gender parity in everything: The steady route to raising women’s political representation in Mexico. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 26(1), 54–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2023.2240335

Pitkin, H. F. (1967). The Concept of Representation (1st ed.). University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.2711645

Quintana Osuna, K. I. (2018). El caso de Mariana Lima Buendía: Una radiografía sobre la violencia y discriminación contra la mujer. Cuestiones constitucionales, (38), 143–168. https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24484881e.2018.38.11878

Rodríguez Ballesteros, A. K. (2026). Media Portrait of Presidential Pre-candidates in Mexico for the 2024 Elections: Gender-based Political Violence? In F. Vidal-Correa (Ed.), Gender Dynamics in Latin American Media and Communications (pp. 219–242). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-032-09491-9_8

Sanín, J. R. (2020). Violence against Women in Politics: Latin America in an Era of Backlash. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 45(2), 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1086/704954

Sardenberg, C. M. B. (2016). Ten Years of Maria da Penha 40.

Sawer, M. (2020). Gender mainstreaming and the substantive representation of women: Where do parliamentary bodies fit? Politics, Groups, and Identities, 8(3), 648–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1752444

Schwindt-Bayer, L. (2003). Legislative representation in Latin America: A comparative study of descriptive, substantive, and symbolic representation of women. http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/280324

Serrano Oswald, S. E. (2023). Gender based political violence against women in Mexico from a regional perspective. Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science, 7(1), 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41685-022-00271-6

Severi, F. C. (2018). Lei Maria da Penha e o projeto jurídico feminista brasileiro. Editora Lumen Juris.

Signorelli, M. C., de Souza, F. G., Pinheiro Junior, R. V. B., Valente, J., Andreoni, S., Rezende, L. F. M. de, & Sanchez, Z. V. D. M. (2023). Panorama of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Brazil and its Association With Self-Perception of Health: Findings From a National Representative Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(13–14), 8453–8475. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231155141

Thaler, K. M., & Mosinger, E. (2022). Nicaragua: Doubling Down on Dictatorship. Journal of Democracy, 33(2), 133–146.

Vargas Martínez, F. C., & Araiza Díaz, A. (2021). Acción política frente a la violencia feminicida en México. Experiencias de una Investigación Activista Feminista. Empiria: Revista de metodología de ciencias sociales, (50), 91–114.
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Violence against women. (2024, March 24). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women

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